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Dr. Mark F. Reynolds

schoolwork | Teacher … see also: Mr. Michael Settanni / Dr. Paul J. Angiolillo / Ms. Ringle / Dr. Peter M. Graham / Mrs. Marie H. Flocco / Dr. Joseph N. Bartlett

The Biochemistry of Anthrax

↘︎ Dec 7, 2009 … 2′ … download⇠ | skip ⇢

Anthrax is an illness caused by the bacterium bacillus anthracis. The bacteria are spread through spores and can infect the host cutaneously, inhalationally, or gastrointestinally. If infected, anthrax can often be fatal to the host. The bacteria employ a synergistic binary mechanism in order to infect eukaryotic cells and inflict the host with the illness. The symbiotic nature of anthrax is what makes it especially potent and of such concern.

The basic binary mechanism works with two components; component “A” and component “B.” Precursor component B must first be activated via proteolysis to form an oligomer. These activated B components will either then form a heptamer in solution which will then bind to a receptor on the cell surface, or bind as monomers to the receptor and form a homoheptamer. This component B-receptor complex then acts as a docking station for component A. Under acidic conditions, enzymatic component A is able to be translocated through the component B-receptor complex into the cytosol.

Once in the cytosol, component A is able to then disarm the cell through a number of different methods. First, component A could potentially force mono-ADP-ribosylation of G-actin, which incites cytoskeletal disarry and cell death. Second, it could induce proteolysis of mitogen-activated protein kinase kinases (MAPKK), which prevents cell signaling. Finally, component A could increase cellular levels of cyclic AMP, which results in immunosuppression and edema.

Anthrax consists of three synergistically acting proteins. The first protein of interest is the protective antigen (PA), which serves as the component B. It can be activated proteolytically from PA83 to PA63 via either trypsin, serum, of furin. It should be noted that furin is a special case, in which PA83 binds to the receptor before being activated by furin located on the cell surface. Once the heptamer of PA63 is formed, it is then able to send the A components into the cytosol under acidic conditions.

In the case of anthrax, component A actually consists of two separate proteins; the lethal factor (LF) and edema factor (EF). These two factors compete for docking rights on the PA63 heptamer in order to gain entrance into the cytosol. When the factors come into with the PA, they react to form lethal toxin and edema toxin. Upon entering the cytosol, each toxin does slightly different destruction on the cell.

Lethal toxin disarms the host immune system. It does this by targeting macrophages and dendritic cells, which eliminates any immunological response that the hosts would have. In essence, the host becomes deprived on pathogen killing cells. The edema toxin works in conjunction with the lethal factor by increasing cellular levels of cyclic AMP. This decreases the host immune response. The combination of these two toxins leads to a build up of bacteria and the host cannot attack the infection because its immune system is nearly non-existent thanks to anthrax.

Anthrax infection can be prevented by vaccine and treated with antibiotics. It was of national concern during the fall of 2001 when anthrax was found in the mail. This made people weary of anthrax as a possible biological weapon that could be used for terrorism. It can be made in vitro, which is part of what makes it such a threat. Anthrax spores can be destroyed with formaldehyde. The name anthrax comes from a Greek word for “coal,” which refers to the black ulcers that form from cutaneous infections. In all, anthrax can be a deadly disease and needs to be carefully dealt with.

Bibliography

Barth H, Aktories K, Popoff MR, Stiles BG. “Binary bacterial toxins: biochemistry, biology, and applications of common Clostridium and Bacillus proteins.” Microbiol Mol Biol Rev. 2004 Sep;68(3):373-402, table of contents. Review.

Guarner J, Zaki SR. “Histopathology and immunohistochemistry in the diagnosis of bioterrorism agents.” J Histochem Cytochem. 2006 Jan;54(1):3-11. Epub 2005 Sep 7.

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  • 09 Dec 7: The Biochemistry of Anthrax #CHM 2611 (Biochemistry) #Dr. Mark F. Reynolds #Saint Joseph's University
  • 09 Oct 28: Kinetics Analysis of Tyrosinase #CHM 2612 (Biochemistry Lab) #Dr. Mark F. Reynolds #Saint Joseph's University

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Kinetics Analysis of Tyrosinase

↘︎ Oct 28, 2009 … 6′ … download⇠ | skip ⇢

Introduction

Tyrosinase is an enzyme involved with that catalysis of monophenols and catechols. Specifically in mammals, tyrosinase catalyzes two steps in the biosynthesis of melanin pigments from tyrosine. The pigment produced from this reaction is used in eyes, hair, and skin. In this laboratory experiment, the kinetics of mushroom tyrosinase is observed by monitoring the oxidation of L and D-3,4-dihydroxyphenyl alanine (Dopa). A crimson colored complex forms from due in part to the oxidoreductase and copper containing functionality of the tyrosinase. The KM and Vmax for tyrosinase can be calculated from resulting data obtained by monitoring the kinetics of the tyrosinase-DOPA solution with a UV-vis spectrophotometer. The enzymatic activity of tyrosinase can then be inhibited and followed via inhibitors such as thiourea and cinnamic acid.

Experimental

During the first week of the experiment, the enzyme kinetics of tyrosine in the presence of L-Dopa and D-Dopa were observed using a UV-vis spectrophotometer at 475 nm. To begin, six solutions were prepared using varying amounts of phosphate buffer and L-Dopa, but an unwavering amount of tyrosinase. The buffer-L-Dopa solutions were prepared in 1 mL cuvettes, and the tyrosinase, kept on ice, was added immediately before subjecting the solutions to UV-vis spectrophotometry. The cuvettes were inverted using paraffin as a cover, in order to mix the enzyme and substrate together, and thus begin the reactions, which was of kinetic interest. The UV-vis was used to monitor the kinetics for one minute. The recorded data could then used to determine the KM and Vmax of tyrosinase. This procedure was then repeated, only using D-Dopa in lieu of L-Dopa.

During the second week of the experiment, the enzyme kinetics of tyrosinase were observed in the presence of L-DOPA and the inhibitors thiourea and cinnamic acid, and were again monitored using a UV-vis spectrophotometer. As in the aforementioned procedure used during the first week of the experiment, the enzyme kinetics of tyrosinase in the presence of varying amounts of L-Dopa and phosphate buffer was monitored using a UV-vis spectrophotometer. For the next two trials, varying amounts of inhibitor was added along with the L-Dopa and phosphate buffer. The inhibitors used were thiourea and trans-cinnamic acid. Again, the enzyme kinetics were followed using a UV-vis spectrophotometer and by comparing the Michaelis-Menten and Lineweaver-Burk plots of the trial without inhibitor to the trials with inhibitor, it could be deciphered as to what class of inhibitors were being dealt with.

Data

L-Dopa Week 1

Sample Velocity (A/min) Velocity (umol/min) Substrate Concentration (uM) 1/V 1/[S]

1

0.1495

0.041527778

228.2062985

24.08026756

0.004382

2

0.2807

0.077972222

532.4813632

12.82508016

0.001878

3

0.329

0.091388889

988.8939601

10.94224924

0.001011231

4

0.3854

0.107055556

2053.856686

9.340944473

0.000486889

5

0.3518

0.097722222

2510.269283

10.23308698

0.000398364

KM = 479.0208
Vmax = 0.1321

D-Dopa Week 1

Sample Velocity (A/min) Velocity (umol/min) Substrate Concentration (uM) 1/V 1/[S]

1

0.0564

0.015666667

228.2062985

63.82978723

0.004382

2

0.1744

0.048444444

532.4813632

20.64220183

0.001878

3

0.2248

0.062444444

988.8939601

16.01423488

0.001011231

4

0.3326

0.092388889

2053.856686

10.82381239

0.000486889

5

0.3843

0.10675

2510.269283

9.367681499

0.000398364

KM = 6616.7
Vmax = 0.4886

L-Dopa Week 2

Sample Velocity (A/min) Velocity (umol/min) Substrate Concentration (uM) 1/V 1/[S]

1

0.1708

0.047444444

228.2062985

21.07728337

0.004382

2

0.2729

0.075805556

532.4813632

13.19164529

0.001878

3

0.3596

0.099888889

988.8939601

10.01112347

0.001011231

4

0.4357

0.121027778

2053.856686

8.262565986

0.000486889

5

0.4662

0.1295

2510.269283

7.722007722

0.000398364

6

0.5055

0.140416667

4183.782139

7.121661721

0.000239018

KM = 512.77
Vmax = 0.1529

Thiourea

Sample Velocity (A/min) Velocity (umol/min) Substrate Concentration (uM) 1/V 1/[S] [I] (uM)

1

0.1871

0.051972222

228.2062985

19.24104757

0.004382

19.7057278

2

0.2926

0.081277778

532.4813632

12.30348599

0.001878

39.4114556

3

0.3332

0.092555556

988.8939601

10.80432173

0.001011231

197.057278

4

0.3548

0.098555556

2053.856686

10.14656144

0.000486889

394.114556

* Samples 5 and 6 discounted

KM = 283.6
Vmax = 0.1181

Trans-Cinnamic Acid

Sample Velocity (A/min) Velocity (umol/min) Substrate Concentration (uM) 1/V 1/[S] [I] (uM)

1

0.1871

0.051972222

228.2062985

19.24104757

0.004382

16.87365011

2

0.2926

0.081277778

532.4813632

12.30348599

0.001878

33.74730022

4

0.3548

0.098555556

988.8939601

10.14656144

0.000486889

337.4730022

* Samples 3, 5, and 6 discounted

KM = 279.8
Vmax = 0.1172

Results

In order to find the KM and Vmax, the raw data was first graphed as absorbance versus time. The slopes elicited from the linear regression of these plots were representative of velocity in terms of A/min. These velocities were then converted to umol/min using the equation A = Elc. Absorbance was divided by 3600 M-1 cm-1 and multiplied by 1 cm to give M/min, which was then converted to moles/min by multiplying by 0.001 L, the volume of the cuvette, and finally this value was converted to umol/min by multiplying by 106 umol/mol.

The concentration of the substrates was found by taking the known mg/mL concentration, dividing by the formula weight of the molecule to obtain mol/L, then multiplying by 106 umol/mol to obtain units in uM. These values were then multiplied by the percentage they comprised of the mL solution. The reciprocal values were graphed, 1/V versus 1/[S], with the y-intercept being equal to 1/Vmax and the x-intercept being equal to -1/KM.

As far as the results go, the KM and Vmax for L-Dopa are both significantly lower than that of D-Dopa found during the first week. This shows that tyrosinase exhibits stereoselectivity, otherwise the values would be exactly the same. It should have been expected that L-Dopa would have a higher KM and Vmax than that of D-Dopa however, because the naturally occurring Dopa molecule has L configuration. It seems more likely that the naturally occurring molecule would have fast enzyme kinetics than the synthesized molecule.

In regards to the inhibitors, the produced strikingly similar KM and Vmax values, both of which are lower than that of the reaction without either inhibitor. This suggests that both thiourea and cinnamic acid are uncompetitive inhibitors. The Vmax values for the runs with the inhibitors is around 0.12 for each, which is fairly close to that of the run without inhibitor, 0.15, but because the KM values for the inhibitor runs are nearly half that of the K­M for the trial without inhibitor, I am not sure how to decipher that. Having equal Vmax values could potentially make the inhibitors competitive, but the KM values should be greater, not lower, than that of the enzyme kinetics without inhibitor.

Conclusion

There is undoubtedly some error in the raw data which affected the KM and Vmax values for all the trials. I had to cut out a lot of data points in order to obtain linear regression lines with reasonable R2 values for the original absorbance versus time graphs, the slope of which was the velocity of the reaction. Even then, I still had to cut out more points for the Michaelis-Menten and Lineweaver-Burk plots in order to have reasonable looking graphs and values. Because the KM and Vmax values are not as expected, I would have to say the results are inconclusive. The inhibitors had nearly identical KM and Vmax values and had to be classified as uncompetitive. I would have expected the inhibitors to be competitive or noncompetitive, just because for a laboratory experiment I doubt the professor would have us analyze an uncompetitive inhibitor; it does not show much significance. The KM and Vmax for L-Dopa compared to D-Dopa from week one also seem odd; I would have expected L-Dopa to have the higher enzymatic activity.

I am guessing most of the error came from not being able to keep the solutions cold. There was a lot of waiting around in order to use the UV-vis spectrophotometer, and once the solutions of buffer and L-dopa were concocted, there was no real way to keep them chilled. This is probably what interfered with the ability to obtain valid data. It was also somewhat difficult to add the tyrosinase to each cuvette at the very same time, as for some solutions the droplet would gravitate down into the solution before the rest, so this cause error in the UV-vis spectrophotometer readings as well.

Questions

Question 1

Sodium azide – NaN3

Non-competitive inhibitor because of its ability to bind to copper.

 

Sodium cyanide – NaCN

Non-competitive inhibitor because of its ability to bind to copper.

 

L-phenylalanine – HO2CCH(NH2)CH2C6H5

Competitive inhibitor because of its inability to bind to copper.

 

8-hydroxyquinoline – C9H7NO

Competitive inhibitor because of its inability to bind to copper.

 

Tryptophan – C11H12N2O2

Competitive inhibitor because of its inability to bind to copper.

 

Diethyldithiocarbamate – S2CN(C2H5)2–

Non-competitive inhibitor because of its ability to bind to copper.

 

Cysteine – HO2CCH(NH2)CH2SH

Non-competitive inhibitor because of its ability to bind to copper.

 

Thiourea – CH4N2S

Non-competitive inhibitor because of its ability to bind to copper.

 

4-chlororesorcinol – C6H3(OH)2Cl

Competitive inhibitor because of its inability to bind to copper.

 

Phenylacetate – CH3COOC6H5

Competitive inhibitor because of its inability to bind to copper.

 

Question 2

a. Increase

b. Decrease

c. Decrease

d. Increase

e. Increase

f. No change

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ADAM CAP is an elastic waistband enthusiast, hammock admirer, and rare dingus collector hailing from Berwyn, Pennsylvania.

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