efficiency

Again, picking up in the vicinity of where I left off: I own a GoRuck GR1 (21L, black). I bought it in 2014, just as it was beginning to garner the internet’s ubiquitous cult of approval as Greatest Backpack of All Time (GBOAT). I can’t tell you if it’s the best backpack ever. It’s the only notable backpack I’ve owned aside from an L.L.Bean monogrammed Deluxe Book Pack which lasted me from middle school through college. I haven’t touched a TOM BIHN or any others in the $200+ price range. I bought the GR1 and moved on from the domain. But, I will say: The GR1 seems fine to me. It doesn’t get in my way; it holds what I want, the pockets are convenient, the zippers are smooth, and it’s comfortable to wear. (I should note that I removed the supportive plastic frame sheet; I prefer it without, though I tend to carry rather little around.)

I use the bag mostly for transporting my laptop and whatever else (notepads, a water bottle, candy, snacks) when I walk a half mile to and from my local library. To get there, I must venture on roads without crosswalks or sidewalks. Which is perilous, because I am certain I will be run over one day. (I had a very near miss in 2014 when cycling down a hill [Google Street View if you want to recreate the scene, head north] and a driver rolled through at a stop sign to make a left turn at an upcoming T-junction [I was on the major roadway; I had no stop and absolute right of way]. I’m having a slo-mo PTSD-type moment thinking about it. The car was a dark silver slash gunmetal Land Rover, and the driver was a well-to-do, immaculately-coiffed professional on his cell phone wearing mirrored sunglasses. It may as well have been Death himself. I yelled a yell for the ages¹ while clamping my caliper brakes with bone-white knuckles. My back wheel began to fishtail in variable road gravel. I was within feet of colliding head-on with Death, who nonchalantly puttered off, oblivious of one incoming cyclist, (business as usual),² and also within inches of skidding out into an indeterminable trail of biomatter. I steadied the rear wheel, but it—was—close. Ever since then, I’ve been understandably OCD about making sure I’m obnoxiously visible when I’m on the road, by foot or by bike.)

Because I often carry my bag on the library walk, I figured the most sensible approach to improving my visibility in this situation would be to affix a beacon semi-permanently onto my bag. Idea #1 was to attach a strobe to the outer webbing, because I already had a bike taillight that was compatible, but a light requires charging, and turning on, and turning off, etc. It would be fussy. I need a passive system. I want to be visible without thinking about it. Then (Idea #2) I learned that GoRuck sells reflective velcro bands (which, ProTip:, can be bought elsewhere for less). These bands are probably adequate for most people, but they only provide so-so visibility. Multiple pairs might do better; I only bought a single pair and wasn’t impressed. Remember: I’m neurotic about this, being seen; I believe the road will be my end. Idea #3 was to tie neon, reflective paracord to the webbing, since this in theory should be similar to but allow for more flexibility and better coverage than the bands. I could apply as much as I’d want, where I’d want. In practice, the cord was bulky, only mildly reflective, and couldn’t be secured firmly onto the webbing.

Finally, I discovered two glorious materials:

1. Pro-Gaff tape, which is great for daytime visibility, and
2. SOLAS tape, which is great for nighttime visibility.

Both tapes are thin, durable, lightweight, and flexible, and can be cut to shape. They’re (near) perfect for this application.

Anyway, as alluded to, sorry to bore you, (drumroll, please), this is my hi-vis GR1:

The SOLAS tape is applied directly onto the webbing. It is incredibly sticky. You could attach the SOLAS to the fabric instead of the webbing, in a different pattern, if you wanted. The Pro-Gaff tape is wrapped around the webbing. It doesn’t stick directly to the webbing or fabric, but it does stick tightly to its own adhesive.

I think the bag looks hideous, but I have received compliments from middle-aged women about it and I haven’t been run over yet.

---

¹“FUCKKKKKK”
²To be fair, I did not use a headlight then, which may have been able to catch this driver’s eye. (I only used a taillight.) I bought a headlight immediately afterward.

I left off touching on digital bookmarks. I read books. Actual, physical books. Not the digital ones—the old technology. I am tempted by e-readers, though, starry-eyed with notion that they’ll get me reading more—because they are novel, and somehow, someway. This is misguided bunkum, I’m aware, so I’m reluctant to adopt, but: Book-reading is a habit I’m still trying to further ingrain. (Aren’t we all?) And I do need strategies for this century. I would so rather grab my phone, for example, given the vacuumed choice, than a book¹. It’s an unfair contest. This proclivity results partially because I can use my phone with one hand, whereas a book necessitates two.² I’m all-in reading a book. Phones, because of their form factor (small!), feign as if they lend to the art of multitasking, though I don’t manage to do anything besides be completely absorbed by my phone, while I’m on my phone, all that well. I also tend to think, in terms of commitment, of books as being fussy about time and focus, like I can’t casually flip open a book for two minutes and get anything out of it. The obverse of this is that phones are immediately gratifying, and they take no effort to operate. I can glance at my phone and feel strong emotion.

Anyway: Consequently, I have to skew the odds to get myself to read. The phone is one distraction. There are others, and there’s not all that much I’ve found can be done to sway the situation besides impose temporal and spatial constraints. My strats:

1. Borrow from a library (rather than own books). Due dates are strong motivators. (N.B., This is a temporal constraint.) (Also note my deliberate use “a book” and “my phone”—possessive indicators—above.)
2. Place books in sight, in the way, within reach. (N.B., This is a spatial [and visual] constraint.)

That’s basically it.³ And it’s chiefly the due date that gets me reading when I slack. However, when I do open a book, what took me a couple of years to realize is: I often forget where I left off, especially if it was in the middle of a chapter, and this causes your writer momentary panic and Extreme Visceral Consternation to have to regain his bearings. Shortness of breath, heart palpitations, sweaty palms—the works.⁴ The thought of rereading passages—and conjuring déjà vu—is enough to dissuade me (subconsciously) from opening a book and, less obviously, from reading short of a chapter at once (i.e., casually reading in spurts). So, this had (past tense now) been a constant obstacle that precluded me from reading: fear of losing my place. And this phenomenon occurred despite using a bookmark to denote where I’d left off.

I suppose now is the time to divulge my bookmarking history and habits:

My bookmarks are scraps of paper. I enjoyed doing origami as a kid, and a relic of that is that I still find myself folding bits of paper, more often than the average person, probably, so anyway: I was wont to fold paper into rectangles, which I stuck out from the tops of books. All store-bought and school-provided bookmarks I had when I was younger functioned this way—they jutted out and sometimes had a ribbon or tassel on the end. The reason for the bookmark protruding is so that the reader can readily gauge (or flaunt) their progress, I guess. I don’t know—I never thought about why I placed my bookmarks that way (I only mimicked what I saw others doing), and after giving it a moment’s thought, I realized this mannerism is rather nonsensical. So I reassessed the notion of bookmarking, and came up with a more precise, protrusionless method of doing it.

I want to tell, immediately, by looking at the position of my bookmark

1. which page (left or right), and
2. which line

I left off on. This is able to relay that:

Placing the tape in a corner affords four horizontal orientations for the bookmark. This is my key for the tape’s positioning, in relationship to the spine:

1. Inside: right page
2. Outside: left page
3. Facing up: above line
4. Facing down: below line

I now open books knowing exactly where I left off, and I am more apt to read for a minute or two (in short sessions, in spurts).

Make Your Own

Step 1: Fold and Tear/Cut Paper to Size

ProTip: I use a Teflon paper folder to get crisp creases.

Step 2: Tape

I like Pro-Gaff tape. It’s durable, and the neon orange is grossly lurid, which makes the bookmark’s orientation easy to distinguish (plus the bookmark itself difficult to misplace).

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¹Or engage in anything else remotely productive, for that matter. The phone trumps all in a bubble.
²I will concede that it’s sometimes possible to hold a book with one hand, but often I need two. Page turns always require a second hand.
³Good lightning, a comfortable chair, and quiet help, of course, but none of those drive causality. I am as likely to sit in a cozy position and doze off.
⁴EVC is a verified medical condition. Look it up.

I want to forget—selectively. That’s why I stick with Google Chrome, even though Safari outclasses it in almost every way. Safari is zippy and mindful of system resources; it doesn’t slurp battery, or ever kick on a laptop’s fan. It’s prompt and polite. I think I’d call it courteous. Even Safari’s dev tools are probably objectively better than Chrome’s at this point.

However, I prefer to surf the web like an amnesiac—like someone who continually forgets, stumbling out of cyberspace, crumpled cig still lightly smoldering, figure mussed, and past erased. And for this reason, my go-to is Chrome. (It can be customized more in this regard than Safari.)

I’m terrified of tracking and predictive services. They ingrain what should be arbitrary, evanescent behaviors. A spontaneous search shouldn’t become an online identity, but, in a self-fulfilling way, it can. To combat this, I only want my web browser to know so much about me at once. When it’s able to build a profile—really, a magnified Polaroid—and it knows where to navigate before I do, I’m done. Volition is shot. I develop browsing patterns that become impossible to break. This was me after predictive features became commonplace in the late 00s. I almost never cleared my history (does anybody?), thus every letter I typed in my location bar corresponded with a website I visited too often. I couldn’t stop. I couldn’t change. Web browsing like this is a Groundhog Day-like ad nauseam repeat experience, except nobody ever figures out that they’re a disgruntled news reporter, they don’t fall in love or even bonk a former classmate, and they become generally worse human beings the longer they’ve trod around.

So: I now start each session with a clean slate: No history. No bookmarks. No hocus-pocus predictive services. Drop me into faraway white-sanded Sahara, queue up my magic carpet, and allow me to fly.

Browser Config #1: Cryogenic Chrome

What This Does

This setup preserves your identity, but wipes your history after each browsing session. The author’s most common use case: I’ve visited a bunch of webpages I regret having visited, and these pages recur as suggestions whenever I type in the location bar; Command-Q Chrome and—zap—I start over.

To Enable

1. Install, Configure: Auto History Wipe

Install from the Chrome Web Store then configure options to taste. My configuration:

• Each time Chrome starts:
  • Check: Clear Browsing History
  • Check: Clear Download History
  • Uncheck: Clear Cookies
  • Check: Clear Website Data
  • Check: Clear Cache
  • Uncheck: Clear Saved Passwords
  • Check: Clear Form Autofill Data
• When you exit Chrome:
  • Uncheck: Clear Local Data

Again, I’m trying to keep myself recognized across websites, so that when I choose to navigate anywhere, I’m able to access whatever it is I want with minimal friction. (N.B., cookies are what preserve logins.)

2. Install: Empty New Tab Page

Install from the Chrome Web Store (no configuring necessary).

Without this add-on, the New Tab page will display Google services and your most visited websites (and thus ingrain tendencies). I prefer a blank screen.

3. Configure: Chrome Settings

Open Chrome’s preferences (from the menu bar or Command-,) and configure the following:

• On startup
  • Select: Open the New Tab page
• Advanced: Privacy and security
  • Deactivate: Use a prediction service to help complete searches and URLs typed in the address bar

“Open the New Tab page” is selected by default; you may not need to change this setting. Prediction services will be activated by default. Deactivate this setting.

4. Delete: Bookmarks

Open Chrome’s bookmarks manager (from the menu bar or Option-Command-B), export (if you’d like), and delete everything.

If you keep bookmarks, Chrome will populate them in the location bar (Command-L) as you type (despite decerebrating prediction services). I instead throw URLs I may later reference into text files; Simplenote, nvALT, and Notes.app are all adequate proxies for managing bookmarks.

Browser Config #2: Always Private Safari

What This Does

This setup turns Safari into a burner browser. It saves almost nothing; back and forward navigation work, but no accessible history is maintained, and cookies don’t even persist from tab to tab, let alone from session to session. This configuration is conducive for not lingering online too long.

To Enable

1. Configure: Safari Settings

Open Safari’s preferences (from the menu bar or Command-,) and configure the following tabs/settings:

• General
  • Safari opens with: A new private window
  • New windows open with: Empty Page
  • New tabs open with: Empty Page
• Search
  • Uncheck: Include search engine suggestions

2. Delete: Bookmarks

And, again, keep no bookmarks, otherwise they’ll appear as suggestions in the location bar too. (Access Safari’s bookmark manager from the menu bar or by Option-Command-B.)

I should note: Safari does have an analog to Chrome’s Auto History Wipe—Safari Cleaner—but it hasn’t been updated in years. Steer clear.

I jot notes, physically, on paper, by hand, often, though I produce work predominantly through the abstraction of a computer screen. I’m notably less productive when I don’t scribble—even just a few words or fragmented incoherencies—over the course of a day. I tend to make sense of whatever faster when I scratch into matter, which isn’t quite replicated by way of the ephemeral processes of electronic journaling or noting. The act is akin to catapulting globs of stagnant, fetid goo out of the skull and onto stiff bedrock. “Here we are, thoughts: face to face. I see you, now, and you are demonstrably mine.”

We are cavemen at heart, after all, and it’s impertinent to constrain a spatial being. The keyboard is a straitjacket of sorts; it limits movement. Try to dismount. Try pirouetting away. It’s not easy. The right brain yearns to express at least slightly more than which it can computationally. (Kersplat!) So jot!

Tools of Trade

I choose to jot with pens, gel- and click-style, in particular, because they are effective and low maintenance. But there are many pens one could choose from. Too many, in fact: It’s perilously easy to lose oneself in the multitudinous aisles of online pen retailers (see: “timesuck”). I demoed about twenty pens the past couple of years because firsthand was the only way I could translate the practical scope of these objects in working contexts—and I advise readers to do the same. JetPens’ popular section (under $10) is a logical place to start. (ProTip: Use their filters.)

My formerly gross collection has been pared down to two pedestrian pens, in two categories, selected scrupulously for specific ends:

For Writing Quickly

The Pilot G2 (0.7mm) is my go-to in most circumstances. I write fastest legibly with this pen. Rapidity is mainly all I care about—fast, fast, fast; go and a minute ago. The pen doesn’t yield the most consistent lines, but I find the ink clear to read and the point satisfying to push/pull/yank across a page.

I write quickly with this pen because of how it’s balanced. I’m able to hold the pen in a way, with fulcrum (i.e., grip) distanced from the gel point, that allows minimal effort to write legible characters. The technique is similar to that of “choking down” on a baseball bat to swing with more force but less control. In this case, the ballpoint moves further with each gesture of the hand at the expense of precision.

I also use the 0.5mm G2, but in less instances, like when I’m scribbling notes while reading. Results from this pen tend to be sloppy; thinner points expose deficiencies in handwriting. I don’t particularly enjoy using the 0.5, but it’s the appropriate pen at times.

For Writing Neatly, in Small Spaces

I use a goofy, hybrid setup in these scenarios: I’m partial to the ink from the Uni-ball Signo 307 (Micro Point)—it’s grand!—but I abhor the Signo body. It’s thick and unwieldy, not unlike the jumbo crayons I scrawled with as a kid. And the clicker is a bore, no fun. But the ink!—it makes me want to attempt art. It flows smoothly and is consistently neat. I’m sure I could reproduce The Sleep of Reason… if I tried.

So: I attempted to transplant the Signo ink refill (while donning a surgical mask and scrubs) (“SCALPEL!”) into other pen bodies that I prefer, and found it’s compatible with the Zebra Sarasa Push Clip (any size). I really like the Zebra Clip. Its clip mechanism is novel and I think flat-out better than that of the average pen, whose mechanism is more susceptible to breaking and doesn’t engage with a pocket nearly as well. (I confess: I delight in clipping the Clip; I swoon when a marginally fussy, unthought task suddenly becomes a conscious cinch.)

Furthermore, the Clip is conducive to neat handwriting because there is little distance between the gel tip and where the pen is comfortable to grip in hand. It encourages the user to “choke up.” This gives way to higher precision than the G2, at the expense of speed. (Which makes sense: The faster one writes, the sloppier the handwriting. The Clip, by way of form, slows the hand down.)

Clip ink is okay—0.5mm I find to be best—but Signo ink is more reliable.

The most common use-case for me, for this Franken-pen, is addressing envelopes, which I don’t do all that often, truthfully. It sees sporadic use, now, though I wrote with it more in the past.

Uni-ball Signo 307 (Medium Point) ink is also compatible with the Clip body, but I almost always prefer to write quickly than neatly at 0.7mm size, so I seldom operate this combo.

Hastily, On Paper

When structure seems apposite, I write on cheap, yellow legal pads. Otherwise, I jot on plain, unlined computer paper (lightweight stock, high brightness, e.g., 20lb / 96 bright) to afford my thoughts abandon.

And Where to Buy

I’ve included product links above that point to Amazon. I get a small kickback if you purchase from them, which allows me to continue producing this type of content. But: The Pilot and Uni-ball can be found for the lowest price at Walmart. That’s where I buy them. The Zebra Clip is only available online (and at specialty stores, I assume); JetPens had the best price on the Clip, last I checked.

pcmag.com

Having immersed myself in the WordPress publishing platform and its accompanying coding languages for intensive stretches while working on websites over the years, 2009–17, specifically, for posterity, (in case any of my fervid readers are wondering), I gained appreciation, disdain, and affinity for the various aspects of writing computer code and what it—computer code—can do and the extreme leverage it can provide. The programming languages used for writing code are similar to written languages (e.g., English, Mandarin, Tuvaluan, Crustacean) in that they serve as means of communication possessing inherent flexibility and thus can be deployed discretionally. Conversation between human and computer can proceed circuitously, linearly, verbosely, or concisely to the same end, much how an author can dispositionally lead a reader to feel, think, or behave a certain way. Here, amidst the 1s and 0s, the objective is to make the computer act a certain way.

To demonstrate the latitude a programming language can provide for achieving an end, below is CSS (cascading style sheets) code, which controls the appearance of an element on a webpage:

#sample-element {
border-top: 1px solid black;
border-right: 1px solid black;
border-bottom: 1px solid black;
border-left: 1px solid black;
}

This can be written instead, for the same effect, as:

#sample-element {
border: 1px solid black;
}

Lo! The four-liner condenses into a single property–value pairing.

Generally, when coding, the ideal is to have written less to achieve the end, whatever it may be, as demonstrated above—but for the sake of clarity for the human who might later be attempting to parse or revise the code, (which human may be and is often you), more lines, characters, and specification can be preferable. Another reason for the long-windedness: manipulation. In the first code block above, defining the top, right, bottom, and left borders separately allows more readily for the customization of each—that is to say, individually; during software development, it’s common to incessantly tweak attributes in the search of “just right.” Above, it’s totally plausible that (1) various border colors, types, and widths were fiddled with, (2) a rather unimaginative 1-pixel solid black border was deemed satisfactory for enclosing the element and (3) by the time the code was deployed to the production setting (i.e., live) the four discrete border attributes remained in the code, uncondensed into the superior one-liner.

This is ok. Yes, the shorthand definition is more elegant, but the form factor here matters little to the end-user (the person visiting the webpage where this style sheet is located). In the 90s or even 00s, the compactness of front-facing code like this was a bigger deal because (A) the internet was slow (think: download speeds under 56Kb/s) and (B) the front-facing code must be downloaded. (The attentive reader will have pieced together that the more compact the code, the faster it is downloaded.) But with download speeds averaging over 1000Kb/s globally now, in 2018, the penalty for an inflated style sheet is unnoticeable. Case in point: The main style sheet for this website at the time of writing is 10KB (kilobytes; 1KB = 8Kb) and I made no efforts to streamline its code. On a below average internet connection, this equates to a less than 0.1s download time. Comparatively, the “organ donor” photo of myself is 19KB, the thumbnail images on the homepage add up to somewhere around 200KB, the typefaces alone account for 325KB…and very quickly the 10KB style sheet is trending towards nothingness and a consequential state of nirvana. This file, the style sheet, also loads only once and is cached (stored for X period of time locally on the device) by most browsers. It is a drop in the digital ocean. So I do not enjoy writing CSS because the language tends to neither reward nor demand scrupulosity of me. Until internet connectivity is throttled to oblivion, which, who knows, may happen, and the size of a webpage becomes relevant again, I will continue to write lackadaisical, semi-bloated, -sloppy CSS.

Other languages that interact with databases (i.e., query them) I feel do reward the meticulous and attentive programmer for writing “better” code. For those unfamiliar with databases, they are essentially spreadsheets: rows and columns with cells full of data. Querying a database retrieves the data contained within these cells under specified parameters. To pull data from a database takes time. To process that data for display on a webpage also takes time. This runtime, or “wait time,” can actually be felt—verifiably perceived—by the end user in many instances, unlike the style sheet download mentioned above, because the querying process typically happens on the constrained server-side. It can only go so fast, and until it has completed, the end-user is left idling with a white screen in their face. Faster internet does nothing to mitigate the wait time. Until the webpage is generated, it cannot be loaded.

As a workaround, webpages are often served statically, which involves pre-generation, storage, and then retrieval of the pre-generated pages. This eliminates the runtime. In other cases, such as when logged into a website or app, the content will be served dynamically to tailor the display. This means the webpages will be generated on the fly and necessitate querying and data processing—wait time. The wait time hurts in two ways:

1. Websites become less functional the more slowly they serve content (humans don’t like waiting)
2. The slower the website, the higher the runtime (and thus web hosting costs)

Since querying and data processing are often what bottleneck the transmission of a webpage to the user, I think it’s especially important to optimize the two for any website that draws traffic or anticipates longevity. To illustrate conservatively: Suppose 0.1 seconds can be shaved off of a query and that query is executed 1,000 times per day. This equates to 100 seconds of runtime saved per day, which adds up to roughly 1 hour per month and 10 hours per year. (These are plausible figures for a low-traffic website.) I am absolutely content to emerge with a gain of this magnitude. And it’s often possible to reduce the runtime of a rogue query further than one tenth of a second. The savings can be dramatic. In the vacuum of a single runtime instance, the time-savings aren’t always noticeable, but the repeated occurrences add up. I won’t delve into the language of queries, like I did above for style sheets, but strategies for optimizing queries often involved eliminating queries (e.g., running them less often by storing results for a period of time) or tweaking comparison methods (e.g., resolving from the opposite angle). Shrewder processing of the data returned by queries increases efficiency as well.

So: I became particularly interested in page generation optimization after realizing the tangible utility of and return for deconstructing queries. A day spent remediating a slow query into a more lively one would translate into a net savings of hundreds or thousands of hours.

en.wikipedia.org

After burning out on my job and the internet in general last fall (see: “Drugged Out”), the physical, actual, verifiable (“Pinch me—ouch.”) environment around me materialized into view as I distanced myself from technology, and through the lens of query optimization I realized I could reduce the time and energy I spent on recurring tasks within this environment—the tangible one—much like how I felled inefficiencies within the digital realm. Actions or tasks are essentially the same as queries. What we are trying to reproduce—or, more analogously, “retrieve” (to borrow from the digital sense above)—are specific states with regularity and precision. Consumed during these real-life processes are resources too. For the sake of example: I boil water at least once per day. State retrieved: water @ 212°F. To refresh to this state from ambient water requires X time and Y energy, which variables hinge predominantly on the construction of the heating vessel (material, shape, capacity, etc.) and type of stove (gas, electric, conduction, etc.). By manipulating these factors (vessel and stove), water can be brought to a boil at varied rates—and why not attempt to raise the speed, (reduce the time), if possible, for a comparable amount of, or even less, energy? (“He’s right!”) Rather than modify my stove, I upgraded cookware. Implied with the acquisition of a new, more efficient pan is a moderate upfront cost, but if I am saving (1) time, because the water boils faster, and (2) energy, because less electricity or gas are spent, why not invest? The water only needs to come to a boil 30 seconds faster for the pan to save me 3 hours per year, and at that point, one year in, I’ve already seen a comfortable return on investment; the water does boil at least that much faster, and I value my time. To make this switch seems like a complete no-brainer to me in retrospect, and I wish I acted sooner. I would be remiss not to mention that there are other considerations inherent to any item besides how quickly it functions—read: you can’t microwave everything—but time is often the prevailing factor. Energy can be renewed; time cannot.

To express the idea of speed, or time-saving, in another format, listed below are generalized comparisons of common objects, concepts, and attributes. Each should be situationally scrutinized, selected, and discretionally employed:

• writing: click pens are faster than capped pens
• stationery: notepads are faster than journals
• laundry: hanging is faster than folding
• enclosures: the zipper is faster than the button
• footwear: slip-on is faster than tie-on
• containers: transparent and bare is faster than opaque and adorned
• objects in motion: lightweight is faster than heavy

The usual solution-seeking pattern is to deconstruct an action, identify its components, and reduce the friction precluding its end state. Forming a comparison base like this can help ramify creative channels. There is infinite possibility. In the case of boiling water, eliminating friction (or, more accurately, conserving energy) saves time. This strategy can also be used to form new, positive habits, rather than just reduce the time it takes to complete old ones. (Or, conversely, by increasing friction, bad habits can be broken.) To provide another example, which demonstrates habit forming and incorporates bullet points #1 and #2: I write down thoughts daily. (“Dear diary…”) Or I try to at least. I’ve found that if I don’t, I get stuck. Repeated thoughts will fester in my brain. I enter states of helplessness, inaction and delusion without regular extrication. It can get bad. I tend to perceive issues more clearly when they’re a foot or two away; left in my own head, I’m blind. And there’s something specifically therapeutic about transmuting these thoughts in my own handwriting, so I scribe with pen and paper rather than an electronic device. The pebble in my path is that I’m rather kind of unenthusiastic about recording these thoughts. It’s at times painful to confront reality or what I’ve initially perceived to be reality, and so I will avoid doing so. Unless I have paper sitting out in plain sight, within grasp, ready to be written on, and pen, too, I’m unlikely to write—so that’s precisely what I do: I leave an open-faced notepad with clean sheet on the top of my desk with engaged pen alongside ready to jot. Bound, covered journals require too much fuss; I can’t be bothered to flip open to my last spot. Serendipitously, the sheets of the notepad necessitate displacement once filled (i.e., tearing off), adding further distance to the thoughts. (“What’s in the past has passed.”) This may sound like psychobabble but in practice I’ve found the philosophy to be sound. Capped pens I am aware can be left uncapped; click pens have the edge in portability, which can matter, but this is largely a personal preference. To get to this point, where journal-keeping has become a sustainable habit, for me, I identified the high-friction aspects of the activity—(1) retrieval of paper and (2) engagement of pen—and attenuated them. There’s more to it than that, but this is enough to be illuminative.

In short, I am far more likely to establish a desired habit when the end state is nearer (e.g., with faster cookware, I am more likely to cook; with faster stationery, I am more likely to write) and it is easier to get started (think comparably of the activation energy required for a chemical reaction to proceed). The ability to establish and sustain new habits leads to personal growth—increased awareness and heightened potential.

To bookend with an extrapolation on the role of efficiency: As blatant hold-ups in action are addressed, previously imperceptible bottlenecks surface. These subsequent hold-ups warrant remediation, induce new ones, and so on. (Picture a metaphysical game of whack-a-mole.) As this sequencing progresses, and perceptual mastery is borne, habitual attentions begin to shift. Words like “routine” and “menial” give way to “variable” and “meaningful.” The less time and energy required for an individual to sustain an existence, the more favorable the conditions for them to flourish.

Strategies for identifying routine actions involve distancing oneself from them. Distancing inherently involves velocity (see: time) (see: space) and displacement. Traveling helps disrupt routines or forces the performance routines in new situations, which can highlight or make more obvious what is limiting about them. If traveling isn’t possible, time and space can still also be manipulated by varying the order, frequency and direction in which tasks are performed in their home environment. Writing, talking with a friend, and speaking into a voice recorder are other methods for distancing oneself from a situation and interpreting it in a new form.

The aforementioned “programming languages” are accompanied by mostly static manuals detailing the limited number functions and components the language possesses, which, when sequenced together strictly, can draw or manipulate query results; the real world is in flux, undefined, infinitely detailed, and incomprehensibly complex. But just as the database query and its corresponding functions may stifle the request for a webpage,—making it inefficient, less functional, and less likely to be used,—so do the minutiae of routine tasks preclude end states, and both are worth scrutiny.

By way of this process of translocating digital ideals to the physical plane, I’ve come to realize: Everything is kind of the same and reflects back what we see in it,—“If the doors of perception were cleansed…,”—and with each experience the apertures shrink or grow.

nl.wikipedia.org

Did you know that the horse, generally regarded as one of the most robust animals on the planet, breathes almost exclusively through its nose? It is physically incapable of mouth breathing unless it suffers from an anatomical abnormality. [1][2][3]

Though I learned that tidbit after completing a majority of the research for this article, I think it is a testament that nature has designed mammals with an intent for optimal respiration through the nostrils.

The purpose of this piece is to investigate whether conscious nasal breathing during exercise, specifically that of the anaerobic type, might be beneficial over oronasal or mouth breathing in terms of performance and recovery.

Aerobic exertion relates to my findings as well.

Explanations

The Meathead’s Explanation

Working out creates acidity. Acidity creates fatigue. Oxidation neutralizes acidity. Nasal breathing is better at oxidation than mouth breathing. Therefore nasal breathing should in theory reduce fatigue and speed recovery better than mouth breathing.

The Enthusiast’s Explanation

One of the penalties of kinetically induced metabolic excitation (i.e. exercise) is H⁺ and lactate production (the accumulation of which being more marked in the case of intense physical activity).

The buildup of these two byproducts creates acidity which the body wants to balance by raising its pH back up to normal levels. Acidity also inhibits glycolysis, the process by which most energy is generated under anaerobic conditions. These factors contribute to the feeling of fatigue.

The path of least resistance for restoring pH is through hyperventilation, which by definition is when the body expels more carbon dioxide (CO₂) than is produced. Hyperventilation typically occurs through the mouth (and not the nose).

However, a lower pH and higher concentration of CO₂ foster more willing delivery of oxygen throughout the body, as per the Bohr effect. Oxidation by definition offsets reduction (i.e. acidity), and also converts lactate back into pyruvate, a building block of energy production.

By nasal breathing, CO₂ is not dispelled as disparately and though airflow is constricted, limiting the rate at which oxygen can be assimilated into the bloodstream compared to mouth breathing, the oxygen that is inhaled is more efficiently distributed to fatigued tissues which should in theory improve athletic performance and recovery, with practice of the technique.

The Know-It-All’s Explanation

High intensity exercise, which often (but not always) recruits fast-twitch (aka type II) muscle fibers, stimulates glycolysis to synthesize ATP for energy in predominance over oxidative phosphorylation because glycolysis is able to produce ATP at a faster rate to fulfill acute energy demands, though oxidative phosphorylation is the preferential and more cost-efficient pathway of energy production within the body. [4][6]

Fermentation (i.e. reduction) of pyruvate to lactate oxidizes NADH back to NAD⁺ for reuse in glycolysis. (Pyruvate and NAHD themselves are products of glycolysis.) NAD⁺ is available in limitation, hence the need to regenerate it. [6]

Lactate is thus a byproduct of glycolysis. Hydrolysis of ATP generated by glycolysis releases H⁺ which accumulates in the muscle along with the lactate. [4][6][7]

Some of the H⁺ is buffered in the muscle and some diffuses into the blood in exchange for Na⁺ or along with lactate through monocarboxylate transporters (MCTs). This then decreases pH in the blood (because of the influx of H⁺ and plasma lactate, lowered HCO₃^– concentration, and thus increased amounts of CO₂ from H₂CO₃ dissociation) and as a consequence, the body wants to raise its pH back up to maintain homeostasis. [7] This acidity specifically inhibits phosphofructokinase, an enzyme that catalyzes a key regulatory step of glycolysis, and also impairs the utilization of glucose. [8][9][10][11][12][13] This is partly what causes fatigue and in a way shows the self-regulation of these mechanisms to protect the body from overexertion.

The path of least resistance for raising pH is by eliminating plasma CO₂, which is vaporized in the alveoli and exhaled by the lungs. [7][14] Its dismissal is hastened by hyperventilation, which happens primarily by breathing through the mouth.

This helps restore pH, though CO₂ is essentially displaced as lactate is produced, which is undesirable as lactate is not as synergetic with oxygen in the way carbon dioxide is through the Bohr effect. [14]

Another method by which pH can be leveled is consumption of the glycolytic byproducts, which is advantageous because this produces energy. The protons can be used in cellular respiration and the lactate can be oxidized back to pyruvate for use in metabolic processes as well. [9][15][16][17][18]

As a side note, I find the interconnection here rather elegant; the heart is able to utilize the built up plasma lactate for energy, which thus allows it to pump harder and increase blood flow to tissues that have a pressing need for oxygen. [19][20]

Mouth breathing is advantageous over nasal breathing in that it allows for increased airflow, which lets an individual reach higher levels of exercise intensity presumably because of the combination of higher oxygen consumption and lower carbon dioxide retention, both of which help balance acidity. [1][21][22][23][24] The cost of this is that it is inefficient when compared to nasal breathing due to the Bohr effect, which means energy is wasted to achieve similar results of oxidation and subsequently I would imagine fatigue sets in sooner as this is a stressful state of physiology. [21][25] If maintained, CO₂ concentrations will likely further deplete, making oxygen delivery even poorer, exacerbating the effect, suggesting this is a mechanism to be avoided when possible and used only for short durations.

Therefore nasal breathing is preferential for its energy efficiency which should in theory better promote oxidative metabolism of glycolytic byproducts, increase available ATP, and thus lessen fatigue and speed recovery from athletic endeavors.

Practical Suggestions

I believe there are a few simple takeaways to be gleaned from this science that can easily be applied to improve the efficacy of one’s training.

1. Consciously make an effort to breath through your nose at all times, as in 24/7, to develop mastery of the nasal breathing technique. [26]
2. During high intensity activity, allow yourself frequent breaks to fully regain control of your breathing and allow your heart rate to reset before continuing. Don’t keep pushing while you are winded.
3. Nasal strips can help improve airflow, which appears to be the limiting factor in the exercise intensity one can achieve solely through nose breathing. [1][27][28] (That limiting of intensity could be construed as a positive, however.) Nasal resistance does actually reduce on its own during exercise, too. [29][30]

Concerns

First and foremost, this is undoubtedly a simplified view of energetic processes and I do not claim to have that deep a grasp on the subject matter. There may be mistakes in my understanding and presentation above.

Secondly, I think there is ample evidence that shows mouth breathing allows for a higher respiratory rate than nose breathing. Whether the influx of oxygen or exhalation of carbon dioxide is the more relevant factor, I am not sure, but the increased flow rate of mouth breathing does allow exercise to reach a higher intensity.

However, unless you are a professional athlete and your livelihood hinges upon you sucking for air while putting your body through extreme stress, then do it when necessary, but for the rest of the population, if you are reaching the point where you must breathe through your mouth, I think that’s a sign you are training too hard.

What I am unclear about here though is exactly how oxygen is utilized when mouth breathing becomes a necessity at maximal intensity. It is delivered less efficiently, and I would assume certain metabolic processes take priority over others in terms of needing that oxygen. I am guessing oxidative phosphorylation is preferential over lactate consumption in this situation, which might help explain the lactate paradox. [9][14] This warrants further investigation.

Thirdly, by forcing nasal breathing during high intensity exercise, I have a feeling the body might be exposed to a more acute period of acidity as compared to mouth breathing because of the lower but more efficient ventilatory rate of nasal breathing. By mouth breathing, my hunch is that the body’s pH is restored more gradually as it is the less effective but more voluminous technique. There may be consequences associated with this, if my assumptions are correct.

Related Topics

Altitude

At high altitude, there is a belief that red blood cell production is stimulated to compensate for the relative scarcity of oxygen in the air, and that this is the primary cause for performance gains associated with altitude training. [31][32]

However, others postulate that the positive effects of altitude training are mostly due to other factors, such as an adaptation to a more economic utilization of oxygen. [33] This claim seems to be supported by the lactate paradox, which shows “reduced production of lactic acid at a given work rate at high altitude.” [14] Lactate levels should not be reduced if increased red blood cell mass was the predominant factor in performance increase because carbon dioxide plays such a role in oxygen delivery.

Building one’s tolerance of nasal breathing is probably comparable to physiological adaptations of high altitude.

Baking Soda

Sodium bicarbonate (i.e. baking soda) raises blood pH which helps buffer acidic buildup, delaying the onset of fatigue. [34] (Excessive acidity impairs energetic pathways.) [8][9][10][11][12][13]

It also increases PCO₂, allowing O₂ to be delivered more readily to fatigued muscles because of the Bohr effect, though the increase in pH may initially offset the increase in carbon dioxide concentration, limiting the phenomenon. [34]

Aerobic Exercise

As all this translates to aerobic exercise, the main principle still stands: nasal breathing improves the delivery of oxygen. Oxidative phosphorylation, the preferential metabolic pathway of the body, is more efficient than glycolysis and relies on O₂ availability. Thus, sufficiently supplying an increased demand for oxygen during low intensity activity is important as well.

Those interested in endurance exercise may want to read about lactate threshold and note how it relates to oxidation.

Temperature

Unmentioned here is that metabolic processes create heat. Thus when one exercises, extra energy is spent and body temperature rises. This typically is compensated for by the dissipation of heat through the skin to maintain a functional core temperature. [35] When one’s internal temperature becomes too high, performance suffers (and the risk of serious biological harm onsets). [36]

I have yet to delve deep into the literature on this subject matter, but as it relates to respiration, I think the goal is still ultimately to promote energy efficiency, and excessive heat retention should be viewed as the result of an obstruction, namely the temperature of the outside environment. [37]

It is unclear if there is an optimal ambient temperature for which to exercise, but marathon results show a progression of improved performance all the way down to 41 °F. [38] (Data presumably hasn’t been interpreted below that number.)

My guess would be that the lowest temperature one can tolerate without impediment of motor functioning is the best in terms of maximizing potential.

I am unsure about the relationship between respired air temperature and pulmonary gas exchange (it may again be influenced by the Bohr effect), but nasal breathing warms air better than mouth breathing, though tidal volume lessens with cold air. [39][40][41] Glycogenolysis is also reduced at lower temperatures, suggesting improved oxygenation. [42][43]

Alas, this is a topic for another day.

References

[1]: Hinchcliff KW, Kaneps AJ, Geor RJ. Equine Exercise Physiology, The Science of Exercise in the Athletic Horse. Elsevier Health Sciences; 2008:170.

“Horses maintain nasal breathing, normally, throughout exercise and rely on capacitance vessel constriction and contraction of upper airway dilating muscles to minimize airflow resistance.”

[2]: Holcombe SJ, Derksen FJ, Stick JA, Robinson NE. Effect of bilateral blockade of the pharyngeal branch of the vagus nerve on soft palate function in horses. Am J Vet Res. 1998;59(4):504-8.

“DDSP [(dorsal displacement of the soft palate)] creates flow-limiting expiratory obstruction and may be caused by neuromuscular dysfunction involving the pharyngeal branch of the vagus nerve. It may alter performance by causing expiratory obstruction and by altering breathing strategy in horses.”

[3]: Holcombe SJ. Neuromuscular Regulation of the Larynx and Nasopharynx in the Horse. Proceedings of the Annual Convention of the AAEP. 1998;44:28.

“Based on clinical observation, it has been suspected that horses might open-mouth breathe during episodes of dorsal displacement of the soft palate. Transoral breathing would be a unique feature of this syndrome because horses generally are obligate nasal breathers.”

[4]: Kravitz L. Lactate: Not Guilty as Charged. 2003. Available at: http://www.unm.edu/~lkravitz/Article%20folder/lactate.html. Accessed November 25, 2013.

“Fast-twitch muscle fibers have fewer mitochondria (where cell respiration occurs as well as the uptake of protons) than slow-twitch, or aerobic endurance fibers. Thus, during high-intensity resistance training, because of the extensive use of the fast-twitch fibers (with few mitochondria and less uptake of protons) there is a greater accumulation of protons, causing acidosis.”

“Robergs et al. (2004) show through detailed chemical reactions that lactic acid is not produced in the body. Rather, lactate is the product of a side reaction in glycolysis.”

“The utility of anaerobic glycolysis to a muscle cell when it needs large amounts of energy stems from the fact that the rate of ATP production from glycolysis is 100 times faster than from oxidative phosphorylation.”

“All cells have plenty of ADP and P_i because these are the hydrolysis products of ATP. However, the amounts of NAD⁺ are limited, and therefore NADH must be oxidized back to NAD⁺.”

[6]: Robergs RA, Ghiasvand F, Parker D. Biochemistry of exercise-induced metabolic acidosis. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2004;287(3):R502-16.

“Every time ATP is broken down to ADP and Pi, a proton is released. When the ATP demand of muscle contraction is met by mitochondrial respiration, there is no proton accumulation in the cell, as protons are used by the mitochondria for oxidative phosphorylation and to maintain the proton gradient in the intermembranous space. It is only when the exercise intensity increases beyond steady state that there is a need for greater reliance on ATP regeneration from glycolysis and the phosphagen system. The ATP that is supplied from these nonmitochondrial sources and is eventually used to fuel muscle contraction increases proton release and causes the acidosis of intense exercise. Lactate production increases under these cellular conditions to prevent pyruvate accumulation and supply the NAD⁺ needed for phase 2 of glycolysis.”

[7]: Péronnet F, Aguilaniu B. Lactic acid buffering, nonmetabolic CO₂ and exercise hyperventilation: a critical reappraisal. Respir Physiol Neurobiol. 2006;150(1):4-18.

“Hydrolysis of ATP generated by glycolysis, rather than glycolysis per se, releases H⁺ in the muscle (Robergs et al., 2004).”

“A portion of the muscle H⁺ load is removed by metabolic and fixed physicochemical buffers, and by the reduction in muscle bicarbonate concentration, while another portion leaves the cell in exchange with Na⁺ or along with lactate through MCTs. Plasma lactate and H⁺ concentration thus increase. Although fixed physicochemical buffers in the blood (Cerretelli and Samaja, 2003) remove a portion of the H⁺ load, plasma pH decreases, reducing the concentration of bicarbonate in the blood, and the CO₂ released appears in the expired gas.”

[8]: Stine ZE, Dang CV. Stress eating and tuning out: Cancer cells re-wire metabolism to counter stress. Crit Rev Biochem Mol Biol. 2013;48(6):609-19.

“A fall in pH also inhibits phosphofructokinase activity. The inhibition of phosphofructokinase by H+ prevents excessive formation of lactic acid (Section 16.1.9) and a precipitous drop in blood pH (acidosis).”

[9]: Phypers B. Lactate physiology in health and disease. Continuing Education in Anaesthesia, Critical Care & Pain. 2006;6(3):128-132.

“To support an increase in glycolysis, NAD+ from the conversion of pyruvate to lactate, is required. The activity of phosphofructokinase (PFK) is rate limiting.”

“Impairment of oxidative pathways during lactate production results in a net gain of H+ and acidosis occurs. (Oxidative phosphorylation during severe exercise prevents acidosis despite massive lactate production.)”

“Mitochondria-rich tissues such as skeletal and cardiac myocytes and proximal tubule cells remove the rest of the lactate by converting it to pyruvate.”

“With severe exercise, type II myocytes produce large amounts of lactate […] This provides some of the increased cardiac energy requirements (Fig. 4).”

[10]: Peak M, Al-habori M, Agius L. Regulation of glycogen synthesis and glycolysis by insulin, pH and cell volume. Interactions between swelling and alkalinization in mediating the effects of insulin. Biochem J. 1992;282 ( Pt 3):797-805.

“It is concluded that glycogen synthesis and glycolysis are both stimulated by cell swelling and inhibited by acidification, under certain conditions, but glycolysis is more sensitive to inhibition by acidification and glycogen synthesis to stimulation by swelling. Consequently, simultaneous swelling and acidification is associated with inhibition of glycolysis and stimulation of glycogen synthesis. Stimuli that cause swelling and alkalinization activate both glycogen synthesis and glycolysis, alkalinization being more important in control of glycolysis and swelling in control of glycogen synthesis. Both cell swelling and alkalinization are components of the mechanism by which insulin controls glycogen synthesis and glycolysis.”

[11]: Bevington A, Brown J, Pratt A, Messer J, Walls J. Impaired glycolysis and protein catabolism induced by acid in L6 rat muscle cells. Eur J Clin Invest. 1998;28(11):908-17.

“In skeletal muscle, metabolic acidosis stimulates protein degradation and oxidation of branched-chain amino acids. This could occur to compensate for impairment of glucose utilization induced by acid.”

[12]: Uchida K, Matuse R, Toyoda E, Okuda S, Tomita S. A new method of inhibiting glycolysis in blood samples. Clin Chim Acta. 1988;172(1):101-8.

“The maintenance of hydrogen ion concentration in blood samples at pH 5.3-5.9 immediately inhibits glycolysis. This effect is due to the inhibition of all glycolytic enzymes, as shown by measurement of various glycolytic intermediates.”

[13]: Rovetto MJ, Lamberton WF, Neely JR. Mechanisms of glycolytic inhibition in ischemic rat hearts. Circ Res. 1975;37(6):742-51.

“The major factors that accounted for the glycolytic inhibition in the ischemic heart compared with the anoxic heart appeared to be higher tissue levels of lactate and H+ in the ischemic tissue. […] It is concluded that accumulation of lactate represents a major factor in the inhibition of glycolysis that develops in ischemic hearts.”

[14]: Peat R. Altitude and Mortality. 2006. Available at: http://raypeat.com/articles/aging/altitude-mortality.shtml. Accessed November 25, 2013.

“Lactate paradox: The reduced production of lactic acid at a given work rate at high altitude. Muscle work efficiency may be 50% greater at high altitude. ATP wastage is decreased.”

“The idea of the “oxygen debt” produced by exercise or stress as being equivalent to the accumulation of lactic acid is far from accurate, but it’s true that activity increases the need for oxygen, and also increases the tendency to accumulate lactic acid, which can then be disposed of over an extended time, with the consumption of oxygen. This relationship between work and lactic acidemia and oxygen deficit led to the term “lactate paradox” to describe the lower production of lactic acid during maximal work at high altitude when people are adapted to the altiude. Carbon dioxide, retained through the Haldane effect, accounts for the lactate paradox, by inhibiting cellular excitation and sustaining oxidative metabolism to consume lactate efficiently.”

“The loss of carbon dioxide from the lungs in the presence of high oxygen pressure, the shift toward alkalosis, by the Bohr-Haldane effect increases the blood’s affinity for oxygen, and restricts its delivery to the tissues, but because of the abundance of oxygen in the lungs, the blood is almost completely saturated with oxygen.”

“At high altitude, the slight tendency toward carbon dioxide-retention acidosis decreases the blood’s affinity for oxygen, making it more available to the tissues. It happens that lactic acid also affects the blood’s oxygen affinity, though not as strongly as carbon dioxide. However, lactic acid doesn’t vaporize as the blood passes through the lungs, so its effect on the lungs’ ability to oxygenate the blood is the opposite of the easily exchangeable carbon dioxide’s. Besides dissociating oxygen from hemoglobin, lactate also displaces carbon dioxide from its (carbamino) binding sites on hemoglobin. If it does this in hemoglobin, it probably does it in many other places in the body.”

[15]: Brooks GA. The lactate shuttle during exercise and recovery. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1986;18(3):360-8.

“Most (75%+) of the lactate formed during sustained, steady-rate exercise is removed by oxidation during exercise, and only a minor fraction (approximately 20%) is converted to glucose.”

“Of the lactate which appears in blood, most of this will be removed and combusted by oxidative (muscle) fibers in the active bed and the heart.”

“However, as the muscle respiratory rate declines in recovery, lactate becomes the preferred substrate for hepatic gluconeogenesis. Practically all of the newly formed liver glucose will be released into the circulation to serve as a precursor for cardiac and skeletal muscle glycogen repletion. Liver glycogen depots will not be restored, and muscle glycogen will not be completely restored until refeeding.”

[16]: Brooks GA. Mammalian fuel utilization during sustained exercise. Comp Biochem Physiol B, Biochem Mol Biol. 1998;120(1):89-107.

“The concept of a ‘lactate shuttle’ is that during hard exercise, as well as other conditions of accelerated glycolysis, glycolytic flux in muscle involves lactate formation regardless of the state of oxygenation. Further, according to the lactate shuttle concept, lactate represents a major means of distributing carbohydrate potential energy for oxidation and gluconeogenesis. In humans and other mammals, the formation, distribution and disposal of lactate (not pyruvate) represent key steps in the regulation of intermediary metabolism during sustained exercise.”

[17]: Mazzeo RS, Brooks GA, Schoeller DA, Budinger TF. Disposal of blood [1-13C]lactate in humans during rest and exercise. J Appl Physiol. 1986;60(1):232-41.

“It was concluded that, in humans, 1) lactate disposal (turnover) rate is directly related to the metabolic rate, 2) oxidation is the major fate of lactate removal during exercise, and 3) blood lactate concentration is not an accurate indicator of lactate disposal and oxidation.”

[18]: Brooks GA. Cell-cell and intracellular lactate shuttles. J Physiol (Lond). 2009;587(Pt 23):5591-600.

“Lactate is actively oxidized at all times, especially during exercise when oxidation accounts for 70–75% of removal and gluconeogenesis for most of the remainder. Working skeletal muscle both produces and uses lactate as a fuel, with much of the lactate formed in glycolytic fibres being taken up and oxidized in adjacent oxidative fibres. Because it is more reduced that its keto-acid analogue, sequestration and oxidation of lactate to pyruvate affects cell redox state, both promoting energy flux and signalling cellular events.”

[19]: Prestwich KN. Removal of Lactic Acid — Oxidation and Gluconeogenesis. 2003. Available at: http://college.holycross.edu/faculty/kprestwi/exphys/lecture/ExPhysEx2Lect_pdf/ExPhys_03_M08_lac_remove.pdf. Accessed November 25, 2013.

“It is as if aerobic glycolysis started in the muscle and finished in the heart.”

[20]: Børsheim E, Bahr R. Effect of exercise intensity, duration and mode on post-exercise oxygen consumption. Sports Med. 2003;33(14):1037-60.

“In the recovery period after exercise there is an increase in oxygen uptake termed the ‘excess post-exercise oxygen consumption’ (EPOC), consisting of a rapid and a prolonged component.”

[21]: Morton AR, King K, Papalia S, Goodman C, Turley KR, Wilmore JH. Comparison of maximal oxygen consumption with oral and nasal breathing. Aust J Sci Med Sport. 1995;27(3):51-5.

“The percentage decrease in maximal ventilation with nose-only breathing compare to mouth and mouth plus nose breathing was three times the percentage decrease in maximal oxygen consumption. The pattern of nose-only breathing at maximal work showed a small reduction in tidal volume and large reduction in breathing frequency. Nasal breathing resulted in a reduction in FEO₂ and an increase in FECO₂. While breathing through the nose-only, all subjects could attain a work intensity great enough to produce an aerobic training effect (based on heart rate and percentage of VO₂ max).”

[22]: Niinimaa V, Cole P, Mintz S, Shephard RJ. The switching point from nasal to oronasal breathing. Respir Physiol. 1980;42(1):61-71.

“Twenty of the 30 subjects (normal augmenters) switched from nasal to oronasal breathing at submaximal exercise[…]”

[23]: Tanaka Y, Morikawa T, Honda Y. An assessment of nasal functions in control of breathing. J Appl Physiol. 1988;65(4):1520-4.

“Dead space and airway resistance were significantly greater during nose than during mouth breathing.”

“It is suggested that a loss of nasal functions, such as during nasal obstruction, may result in lowering of CO₂, fostering apneic spells during sleep.”

[24]: Tanaka Y, Honda Y. Nasal obstruction as a cause of reduced PCO₂ and disordered breathing during sleep. J Appl Physiol. 1989;67(3):970-2.

“End-tidal PCO₂ during nose-obstructed sleep was lower than that during nose-open sleep in all of the subjects.”

[25]: Hall RL. Energetics of nose and mouth breathing, body size, body composition, and nose volume in young adult males and females. Am J Hum Biol. 2005;17(3):321-30.

“Nose breathing was found to be more energetically efficient in most but not all subjects, but additional research is needed to explore this finding further.”

[26]: Thomas S. A., Phillips, V., Mock, C., Lock, M., Cox, G. and Baxter, J. (2009) The effects of nasal breathing on exercise tolerance. Liverpool conference centre: Chartered Society of Physiotherapy Annual Congress 2009, Liverpool conference centre, 16th and 17th October 2009.

“Nasal breathing was possible at 85% of maximum workload suggesting that people are capable of nose breathing at much higher intensities than they would normally chose to do, suggesting a potential for nose breathing training interventions even with normal healthy individuals.”

[27]: Geor RJ, Ommundson L, Fenton G, Pagan JD. Effects of an external nasal strip and frusemide on pulmonary haemorrhage in Thoroughbreds following high-intensity exercise. Equine Vet J. 2001;33(6):577-84.

“The external nasal strip appears to lower the metabolic cost of supramaximal exertion in horses.”

[28]: Tong TK, Fu FH, Chow BC. Nostril dilatation increases capacity to sustain moderate exercise under nasal breathing condition. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 2001;41(4):470-8.

“Exercise time to exhaustion in NBFNS [(nasal breathing with fake nasal strip)] trial, which was 23.6+/-6.7% less than the CON [(oronasal breathing)] value, increased 31.9+/-12.3% under NBENDS [(nasal breathing with external nasal dilator strip)] condition. [….] Nasal breathing reduces the sustainability of moderate exercise measured under oronasal breathing condition. Nostril dilatation increases the capacity to sustain moderate exercise under nasal breathing condition.”

[29]: Olson LG, Strohl KP. The response of the nasal airway to exercise. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1987;135(2):356-9.

“Exercise causes a fall in nasal resistance that may be due to sympathetic vasoconstriction in the nasal mucosa.”

[30]: Fregosi RF, Lansing RW. Neural drive to nasal dilator muscles: influence of exercise intensity and oronasal flow partitioning. J Appl Physiol. 1995;79(4):1330-7.

“The results suggest that during incremental exercise 1) changes in AN EMG activities are highly correlated with changes in nasal VI, 2) turbulent flow in the nose may be the stimulus for the switch to oronasal breathing so that total pulmonary resistance is minimized, and 3) the correlation between nasal airflow and neural drive to the AN muscles is probably mediated by mechanisms that monitor airway resistance.”

[31]: Levine BD, Stray-gundersen J. Point: positive effects of intermittent hypoxia (live high:train low) on exercise performance are mediated primarily by augmented red cell volume. J Appl Physiol. 2005;99(5):2053-5.

[32]: Chapman R, Levine BD. Altitude Training for the Marathon. Sports Medicine. 2007;37(4):392-395.

“While the results of many early studies on the use of altitude training for sea level performance enhancement have produced equivocal results, newer studies using the ‘live high, train low’ altitude training model have demonstrated significant improvements in red cell mass, maximal oxygen uptake, oxygen uptake at ventilatory threshold, and 3000m and 5000m race time.”

[33]: Gore CJ, Hopkins WG. Counterpoint: positive effects of intermittent hypoxia (live high:train low) on exercise performance are not mediated primarily by augmented red cell volume. J Appl Physiol. 2005;99(5):2055-7.

[34]: Singer RB, Deering RC, Clark JK. The acute effects in man of a rapid intravenous infusion of hypertonic sodium bicarbonate solution. II. Changes in respiration and output of carbon dioxide. J Clin Invest. 1956;35(2):245-53.

“During the infusion of sodium bicarbonate, arterial pH, arterial and alveolar PCO₂, total ventilation, and rate of elimination of CO₂ were significantly increased above control levels.”

“Following the infusion, the rate of CO₂ elimination returned to the control level, but arterial pH was still elevated despite a steady fall toward the control range.”

[35]: Maughan RJ. Temperature regulation during marathon competition. Br J Sports Med. 1984;18(4):257-60.

“During hard physical exercise, metabolic rate may rise 10 or 15-fold, and this rate of heat production may be sustained for several hours. For the exercising individual, therefore, cold exposure does not normally represent a serious challenge to the body’s homeostatic mechanisms, but the problems of heat loss when exercising at a high ambient temperature may be acute.”

“It is also important to remember that, although it is the core body temperature which is regulated, it is the temperature of the skin relative to that of the environment which determines whether heat is gained or lost.”

[36]: González-alonso J, Teller C, Andersen SL, Jensen FB, Hyldig T, Nielsen B. Influence of body temperature on the development of fatigue during prolonged exercise in the heat. J Appl Physiol. 1999;86(3):1032-9.

“These results demonstrate that high internal body temperature per se causes fatigue in trained subjects during prolonged exercise in uncompensable hot environments. Furthermore, time to exhaustion in hot environments is inversely related to the initial temperature and directly related to the rate of heat storage.”

[37]: El helou N, Tafflet M, Berthelot G, et al. Impact of environmental parameters on marathon running performance. PLoS ONE. 2012;7(5):e37407.

“Air temperature is the most important factor influencing marathon running performance for runners of all levels.”

[38]: Ely MR, Cheuvront SN, Roberts WO, Montain SJ. Impact of weather on marathon-running performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2007;39(3):487-93.

“There is a progressive slowing of marathon performance as the WBGT [(Wet Bulb Globe Temperature)] increases from 5 to 25 degrees C. This seems true for men and women of wide ranging abilities, but performance is more negatively affected for slower populations of runners.”

[39]: Paczesny D, Rapiejko P, Weremczuk J, Jachowicz R, Jurkiewicz D. [Air temperature measurements in nasal cavities and oral cavity]. Otolaryngol Pol. 2007;61(5):864-7.

“The air inspired through the nose and oral cavity is heated during respiration. For typical external conditions (T = 22 degrees C i RH = 50%) the nose heats inspired air 1,5 times better then oral cavity (short time range of measurement approximately 1 min.). Heat from expired air is recovered for both nasal cavities and oral cavity. Nasal cavities respiration ability for heat recovery from expired air is 3 times higher then oral cavity respiration.”

[40]: Burgess KR, Whitelaw WA. Effects of nasal cold receptors on pattern of breathing. J Appl Physiol. 1988;64(1):371-6.

“The results confirm the previous observation that cold air breathed through the nose inhibits ventilation in normal subjects and show that this is not related to an increase in flow resistance.”

[41]: Keck T, Lindemann J. Numerical simulation and nasal air-conditioning. GMS Curr Top Otorhinolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2010;9:Doc08.

“Heating and humidification of the respiratory air are the main functions of the nasal airways in addition to cleansing and olfaction. Optimal nasal air conditioning is mandatory for an ideal pulmonary gas exchange in order to avoid desiccation and adhesion of the alveolar capillary bed.”

[42]: Febbraio MA, Snow RJ, Stathis CG, Hargreaves M, Carey MF. Blunting the rise in body temperature reduces muscle glycogenolysis during exercise in humans. Exp Physiol. 1996;81(4):685-93.

“These results suggest that glycogenolysis in contracting skeletal muscle is reduced during exercise when the rise in body core temperature is attenuated. These changes in carbohydrate metabolism appear to be influenced by alterations in muscle temperature and/or sympatho-adrenal activity.”

[43]: Febbraio MA, Snow RJ, Hargreaves M, Stathis CG, Martin IK, Carey MF. Muscle metabolism during exercise and heat stress in trained men: effect of acclimation. J Appl Physiol. 1994;76(2):589-97.

“Muscle glycogenolysis and percentage of type I muscle fibers showing glycogen depletion were greater (P < 0.05) in the PRE ACC [(40 degrees C and 20% relative humidity before acclimation)] than in the RTT [(20 degrees C and 20% relative humidity)] trial.”

The Tip

If you haven’t used it in the past year, get rid of it.

Why This Works

If you haven’t used something in the past year, chances are you probably won’t use it this year, and the unlikeliness of utility will just compound year after year after year.

So… you can safely say “sayonara” to your stuff.